An Emmigrant’s Guide to the Canadas

1832 Evan’s Immigation Guide

Wm Watson Esq. Dublin 1822

Francis A Evans Esq. 1832

In 1867 the Treaty of Paris granted Great Britain the French territory known as New France. In order to assert their ownership as well as to provide relief for the support of the increasing number of indigent citizens, the government strongly encouraged emigration to the new British colony. There was also a financial advantage for the public purse. Every man, woman, or child in the colonies used forty dollars worth of British goods whereas at home they required one third of that amount. Efforts by private citizens to promote this action included printing and distributing pamphlets as well as public forums were government subsidized.

Not all those taking advantage of this rather lucrative interest were actually knowledgeable or honest, often never having visited the colony only gleaning information from other, generally not reliable sources. The two guides I have chosen were written by men who had lived in the Canadas for several years. Mr. Watson, originally from Dublin, had lived and farmed in the Canadas. Mr. Evans, originally from England, had been an agent for the Eastern Townships for the Legislature of Lower Canada for almost 20 years.

These men published details of requirements associated with acquiring land, including costs, clearing the land, construction of the buildings required, farming, etc.

The ideal time suggested for departure from the British Isles were the months of March or April. Considering the passage to Quebec City could take six to eight weeks, arrival would be about mid May or possibly in early June. This allowed new arrivals time to clear land and build before the onset of winter.

Prospective emigrants were advised to bring only what was not readily available in the colony and personal mementos as baggage was expensive. Fine china and linen were examples of items not easily found in the new country. Lighter clothes should be packed with on board needs as it was strongly advised to change to cooler wear before leaving the ship at Quebec City.

In Québec or Montréal not only the necessities but most of the luxuries of life can be procured with ease and at moderate prices.

And elegance of life, refined and literary Society, is more limited degree than European cities.

This said that although immigrants should not burden themselves with heavy or troublesome articles when coming to Canada, they would be better not to omit a good supply of strong, warm clothing, bedding, shirts, House Linden, cooking utensils, o'clock or timepiece, hosiery, Boots and shoes fit for winter weather, a few good books, a rifle or follow piece which will be useful and amusing in winter and fishing tackle for summer.

Add to this a few simple medicines such as Epsom salts, calcined magnum, castor oil, Cream of tartar, ipecacuanha, tartarised antimony which could be extremely useful.

It was expected that many new arrivals would feel disappointed and dissatisfied and for a time regret leaving their native country. Everything appeared strange, the scenery, manners and customs, and the language of a considerable portion of the inhabitants different from what they have been accustomed to.

It was advised for new arrivals to hire on in the line of work they were seeking to familiarize themselves with the customs of the people and methods farming, milling, etc.

In Quebec City public works were carried on such as canals, roads, bridges, and public buildings, where they could find employment and good wages.

Emigrants were advised not to bring tools with them when coming to their new home in the Canadas. While the cost of transport was an issue, more important, tools made in the Canadas were deemed better suited to the extreme weather conditions in the Canadas. Tools made locally were tempered to withstand the extreme climate and were easily obtained for a reasonable price. Local black smiths produced smaller tools as well as the better known Les Forges St Maurice which also offered larger items such as stoves, cauldrons, as well.

When leaving for their lot they should acquire suitable axes for chopping, strong hoes, a good spade, a grinding stone, pick axe, handsaw, files, chisels, planes, a cross cut saw, a spoke shave, hammers, nails, hinges, locks, glass and putty.

It was not recommended to buy horses for a new farm on which there was not much grass. A cow or two and a yoke of oxen, with a yoke to work and clear land, could be easily be supported on brushwood and live well in the woods with a few acres enclosed to prevent them from straying. A handful of salt given once or twice a week encouraged them to return of their own accord. A good cowbell strapped around the lead cow’s neck also helped locating stray animals.

A primitive log hut could be erected in a few hours where a family was reasonably comfortable during the warm months.

Clearing was usually commenced on the carefully chosen building site. The guides cautioned the newcomers that care should be taken that no large trees are left standing to fall on the living space by a sudden gust of wind.

Using an upward stroke the brush should be cut close to the ground with a brush or hook or axe.

The brush should be piled to be burnt and cutting the trees can commence. Observe to which side the tree inclines, if two any, on the inside or near it chop about 2 feet from ground; chop sloping down, above, and straight in below so the stock shall be left quite flat.

After having cut in more than halfway, minding to do it straight across, begin to cut on the opposite side about an inch or more higher than the former cut. Work in as before having one cut sloping down the other horizontal semicolon when the tree begins to crack or shake, it should be watched carefully at each blow of the ask, until you see it begin to fall; then stepped to one side of the way as trees often bound are dangerous in falling. Care should be taken when possible should not fall upon another tree has getting it down will be attended some trouble and danger: dead, dry, or broken limbs should also be lost watched lest they fall on chopper.

When the tree is fallen the limbs should be cut off into heaps after which the trunk is to be cut into links of 10 or 12 feet.

Limbs and wood not needed should be piled and burnt. It is best to burn when there is a light wind blowing away from the buildings, and then the fire should be put in the

windy side of the field chopped down and it will spread the better: it should be done about 10 or 12 o'clock in the day. When the fierceness of the fire is past, the branches and small wood maybe thrown in heaps on the larger timber; the larger logs drawn away with oxen or rolled with hand spikes into heaps and burnt off.

As the piles are burned out, the ashes maybe save for a pot or pearl ash if care is taken to preserve it from wet.

Sowing and Planting Newly Cleared Land

Oats, barley, Indian corn, beans, right, maybe sold on new land, preferably the first 10 days of June. Potatoes maybe planted all month but the earlier the crops are put down the less danger there is of being injured by an early frost in the fall. Wheat, rye, and peas, should be put in the ground as soon as it is free from frost in spring.

Before seeding or planting, the ground should be harrowed among the stumps lengthwise as well as across with a harrow having 9 or 10 teeth 2” (5 cm.) square, the harrow being drawn with a yoke of oxen or a strong horse. When this is done seeding may begin. One bushel of wheat, rye, or peas, is sufficient for an acre, and 1 1/2 bushel

of oats is required.

After sowing the seed, harrow the ground as before and should any seed remain uncovered around the stumps or other place it may be covered with the hand hoe. Grain will produce from 10 to 25 bushels or more per acre, 15 is considered a fair return. Rye yields about the same, oat and barley produce 20 to 40 bushels per acre, peas from 10 to 20 bushels.

Corn should be planted in hills as soon as possible after May 1st, but maybe sown later. Three or 4 grains of corn should be dropped into each hole, 2 or 3 pumpkin seeds thrown in every third or fourth Hill. Pumpkins have been found very valuable to feed cattle or hogs. Some are used for making pies or puddings.

It is a common thing to cut off the tops of corn a few inches above the ear when it is full. When it has been dried it makes good fodder for cows, horses, and sheep. Corn is usually harvested in September; the ears are broken off and thrown in small heaps in the field; the husks are pulled off, and the clean the ears are spread 6 or 8 inches deep on a dry loft or floor to dry. Alternately, a crib 2 or 3 feet wide and as long as necessary may be built to dry the ears of corn. When dry the corn be shelled and ground-up for use. The meal should be spread thin and loose in a box made for that purpose.

Indian corn, besides being used for family use, is good for fattening hogs, cattle, when mixed with the pumpkins or potatoes. Soft, underripe, ears picked up at the time of harvest are good food for the hogs being thrown to them without any further preparation.

Pumpkins should be carted home and given to the cattle and hogs in the fall or early winter. Hogs fatten well on them when cut up, and boiled and mixed with a little potato and meal. Mature cattle can be fed pumpkin uncooked.

Potatoes, the best root a farmer can raise, are easily raised on a new farm. Planted after the middle of May in hills, about ten bushels of seed to an acre, they require only weeding until harvest in the fall. Stored in a cellar or deposited in small pits in the field they will keep well until April when the pits can be opened.

Both corn and potatoes should have enough space between the rows, about 3 feet, to allow a plough or disk to pass to remove the weeds.

Maple Sugar

The settler should examine his farm, and where he could get 2 to 500 or more Maple trees that is convenient should be reserved for Maple sugar. The hard maple is preferred for making sugar as it has the best yield and sweetest sap.

The Brushwood should be cut and removed give easier access To the area.

As the sun get stronger in the end of March beginning of April the sun begins to rise from the root of the trees and they are ready for tapping. The sap continues to run for about a month or until the sun gets too warm, and the bugs swell out on the trees.

A large gouge or chisel and the piece of dry pine or cedar cut into 9 inch lengths are required for tapping the trees. Cedar should be split into about one quarter inch thickness. They should be pared with a sharp knife at the end to fit the point of the gouge so it can be tapped into the incision and made to fit tightly. Troughs to receive this sap as it falls from this spout are made of pine, fir, or ash about 15 inches through.

The troughs are made logs cut up into links of 2 feet, split into and hollowed out in the centre with axe. These troughs a hold about 2 gallons of sap.

Those who can afford buckets to hang on the trees have a great advantage in saving much sap.

Once this is all been prepared one or 2 troughs placed under each tree tapping can begin. A small sloping notch about an inch and a half long that penetrates the tree to about half an inch is made in the tree about 2 feet from the ground. And auger can be used to drill the hole instead of making an incision with an axe. The Cedar splits are driven into the hole to direct the sap into the bucket below.

Sap is collected with the yoke in buckets every evening or whenever think hands are full. This is taking to the boiling place to be empty into barrels ready to be boiled. Those who cannot get the barrel can use a large hollowed out log.

The sap is strained to be boiled in a large kettle hung over an open fire. When it is boiled to the consistency of syrup it should be strained into a deep narrow vessel, and left to settle for a day or two. When being sugared off it is carefully poured into a finishing kettle without the sediment and boiled again over a slow fire. A little milk order a couple of eggs beaten up can be added to further clarify the liquid. As it boils the top should be skimmed.

When the syrup reaches sugar stage it is poured into moulds to cool and harden.

Some do not boil the syrup so dry but pour it into a barrel after it reaches soft sugar stage. After a day or two sugar begins to crust on the surface gimlet holes in the bottom barrel are open to allow the molasses to run off leaving clean, fare, sugar.

To prevent the sap or syrup boiling over a square inch of fat pork should be thrown into the pot.

The last run from trees which is not good for sugar should be boiled about a half down before placing it in a barrel to ferment and make good vinegar. A little leaven or yeast may be added but is not necessary.

Potash

Ashes carefully saved from burning hardwood can be manufactured into what was called salts of lye and could be marketed as such locally. Another option was to make potash or pearl potash.

For this they needed two or more deep tubs called leeches which held six or 8 bushels of ashes and had a tap at the bottom. These tubs were placed understand foot or so from the ground with the trough underneath to collect the lye when it ran off.

A few brick, stone, or a hand full of brushwood are put inside over the spigot. Straw is put it over top of this to prevent the ashes from running through making muddy lye. Dry ashes, nearly filling the leech are poured in and gently pushed down. If lime is added to the dry ashes the end product becomes Pearl ash which get a much higher price on the market.

Boiling water is poured through until the ashes are perfectly soaked through. Cold water maybe added until all the strength is taken from the ashes.

Two or more kettles are hung over a fire to boiled down the liquid that is run from the ashes, one kettle being filled from the other, and that again from the lye water running off the ashes. This is boiled down to the consistency of tar which as it cools hardens into pitch. This is called salts of lye.

Memories Mémoires

Wexford

One day as I was visiting a neighbouring parish, I happened upon an 1815 map of the local area. Needless to say I stopped for a closer look and was very surprised to note that an area northwest of Rawdon was named « Wexford ». To my memory Wexford had always been a sector of Rawdon, a little southwest of what the map indicated. Wexford had its own church, school and even post office. The latter two institutions carried the label of « Mount Loyal », the church was always « the Wexford church ». Anyone heading up that way was said to be going to Wexford. It is not unusual in Rawdon to have specific areas clearly identified by locals if not officially known. There is Masonville and Morindale, the Pines, Kildare, the Lakeshore, etc. However none of these claimed their own institutions. Wexford remained the solely independent community. Certainly, location was a factor in isolating them from the village. Distance, poor weather and bad roads would have made it difficult for them to get to church, school or post office. It would have seemed very reasonable to have the neighbours form their own little community but I wondered about the duality of name in this area.

I decided to check this out with a descendant of one of the original families. She pointed out that the first Wexford church was actually in what was designated « Wexford » on the 1815 map. This would seem to indicate that an attempt was made to settle this area. The fact that it was not particularly good land for farming and difficult to get to from the nearest community (Rawdon) probably discouraged settlement, a church was built to serve the colonists who did not arrive.

Despite the fact the church was not officially in Rawdon, for residents of the northern sector it was closer and easier to attend than Christ Church in the village of Rawdon. Eventually the church was moved closer to Chertsey and the area where the majority of members lived. Again it was brought closer, this time actually on the 10th range in Rawdon to what we now know as Wexford. Despite the moves, it was the same families who attended the church and they retained its name St George’s of Wexford. Obviously, the attachment to the church was much greater importance to the faithful and so the name Wexford became part of the legacy.

Over the years most members of the original families moved away while strangers with no interest in the history of the area settled in. There was a skeleton community which continues to function but for how long is questionable.The church was burnt by an arsonist and the five remaining families are facing the possibility of having to let go. There continues to be a Wexford Guild, but whereas it was the Wexford Ladies’ Guild, recently it was voted to include men, as well. Every fall they hold their annual Wexford Card Party in the Anglican Hall and one Sunday in summer an outdoor services held on the site of the church. Besides the five families still in residence there, many members of Wexford families who have left return to attend as well as parishioners from Rawdon and other parishes. Everyone brings a picnic lunch to be enjoyed after the service. The old Wexford Community spirit prevails.

Last year a stained glass window commemorating St George’s of Wexford was mounted in the back of the Anglican Church in Rawdon. The window was made from glass taken from the church before it burnt so a piece of their heritage is being preserved. Whatever happens in the future, this little community has been an example of what it means to work and share with your neighbours.

Un jour, alors que je visitais une paroisse voisine, je suis tombé sur une carte de la région datant de 1815. Inutile de dire que je me suis arrêté pour regarder de plus près et j'ai été très surpris de constater qu'une zone au nord-ouest de Rawdon était nommée « Wexford ». Dans ma mémoire, Wexford avait toujours été un secteur de Rawdon, un peu au sud-ouest de ce qu'indiquait la carte. Wexford avait son église, son école et même son bureau de poste. Ces deux dernières institutions portaient le nom de « Mount Loyal “, l'église était toujours ” l'église de Wexford ». On disait de toute personne qui se rendait dans cette région qu'elle se rendait à Wexford. Il n'est pas rare à Rawdon d'avoir des zones spécifiques clairement identifiées par les habitants, même si elles ne sont pas officiellement connues. Il y a Masonville et Morindale, les Pins, Kildare, le Bord du Lac, etc. Cependant, aucun d'entre eux ne revendique ses propres institutions. Wexford reste la seule communauté indépendante. Il est certain que l'emplacement a contribué à les isoler du village. La distance, le mauvais temps et les mauvaises routes les empêchaient de se rendre à l'église, à l'école ou à la poste. Il aurait semblé très raisonnable que les voisins forment leur propre petite communauté, mais je m'interrogeais sur la dualité du nom dans cette région.

J'ai décidé de vérifier auprès d'un descendant de l'une des familles d'origine. Elle m'a fait remarquer que la première église de Wexford se trouvait en fait dans la localité désignée comme « Wexford » sur la carte de 1815. Cela semble indiquer qu'il y a eu une tentative de colonisation de cette région. Le fait que les terres ne soient pas particulièrement bonnes pour l'agriculture et qu'elles soient difficiles d'accès depuis la communauté la plus proche (Rawdon) a probablement découragé la colonisation, et une église a été construite pour servir les colons qui ne sont pas arrivés.

Bien que l'église ne soit pas officiellement située à Rawdon, pour les résidents du secteur nord, elle est plus proche et plus facile à fréquenter que l'église Christ Church dans le village de Rawdon. Finalement, l'église fut déplacée plus près de Chertsey et de la zone où vivait la majorité des membres. Elle fut à nouveau rapprochée, cette fois sur le 10e rang de Rawdon, de ce que nous connaissons aujourd'hui sous le nom de Wexford. Malgré les déménagements, ce sont les mêmes familles qui fréquentent l'église et elles conservent le nom de St George's of Wexford. De toute évidence, l'attachement à l'église était beaucoup plus important pour les fidèles et le nom de Wexford est donc devenu partie intégrante de l'héritage.

Au fil des ans, la plupart des membres des familles d'origine ont déménagé, tandis que des étrangers ne s'intéressant pas à l'histoire de la région se sont installés. L'église a été incendiée par un pyromane et les cinq familles restantes sont confrontées à la possibilité de devoir partir. Il existe toujours une guilde Wexford, mais alors qu'il s'agissait de la guilde des femmes de Wexford, elle a récemment été élue pour inclure également les hommes. Chaque automne, ils organisent leur fête annuelle des cartes de Wexford dans la salle anglicane et un dimanche d'été, ils organisent des services en plein air sur le site de l'église. Outre les cinq familles qui y résident encore, de nombreux membres des familles Wexford qui sont parties reviennent assister à l'office, ainsi que des paroissiens de Rawdon et d'autres paroisses. Tout le monde apporte un pique-nique à déguster après le service. Le vieil esprit communautaire de Wexford prévaut.

L'année dernière, un vitrail commémorant St George's of Wexford a été installé à l'arrière de l'église anglicane de Rawdon. Le vitrail a été fabriqué à partir de verre provenant de l'église avant qu'elle ne brûle, ce qui permet de préserver une partie de leur patrimoine. Quoi qu'il arrive à l'avenir, cette petite communauté est un exemple de ce que signifie travailler et partager avec ses voisins.

Uncle Willie's Sugar Cabin

La cabane à sucre de l'oncle Willie

In Rawdon, many sugar cabins were built by the roadside near the homestead rather than in the sugar bush. In the spring, when the farmers were boiling, friends and neighbours stopped by on their way to or from town. They offered the latest news in a time without telephone or local newspaper and were rewarded with a cup of half boiled sap

Gradually these sugar cabins were abandonned and and some, such as ours, disappeared entirely. Only Uncle Willie’s remained in use. It continued to be a popular stopping place in sugar time as long as Uncle Willie lived. In sugar time the door to his cabin was always open. Friends and neighbours were always welcome. A cup of ‘reduit’ and a bit of gossip was offered to all and sundry-and Uncle Willie could tell a good story! He was a human encyclopedia when it came to names and dates for everyone who had ever lived in the area as well as all significant events.

When Herman Copping drove the school bus, every year in sugar time he would make a date to stop at Uncle Willie’s cabin. Come spring the parents knew if the bus was late on a Friday afternoon the kids were at the sugar cabin. The big yellow bus would pull over and the children pile off and into the cabin chattering and pushing each other excitedly. They gathered around the evaporator and waited for their cup of hot sap. Of course, there were always plenty of questions to be asked and answered while they waited. Uncle Willie enjoyed their visit and always had a funny story or two ready for them.

Many made a point of stopping at Uncle Willie’s in sugar time - spring had arrived when you saw steam rising from the roof of Uncle Willie’s sugar

cabin.

Children loved to visit and watch the fire burning hot and sap boiling hard in the pans. Sometimes they were lucky enough to see the syrup being taken off. That syrup tasted even better with their toast or pancakes.

After Uncle Willie was gone the Carroll boys continued to boil every spring and the tradition of stopping in was carried on.

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La cabane à sucre de l'oncle Willie

À Rawdon, de nombreuses cabanes à sucre étaient construites au bord de la route, près de la propriété, plutôt que dans l'érablière. Au printemps, lorsque les fermiers faisaient bouillir le sucre, les amis et les voisins s'y arrêtaient en allant ou en revenant de la ville. Ils donnaient les dernières nouvelles à une époque où il n'y avait ni téléphone ni journal local et étaient récompensés par une tasse de sève à moitié bouillie, reduit (redwee), comme on l'appelait. Nous avions une telle cabane à sucre chez nous.

Peu à peu, ces cabanes à sucre ont été abandonnées et certaines, comme la nôtre, ont complètement disparu. Seule celle de l'oncle Willie est restée en activité. Tant que l'oncle Willie vivait, elle restait une halte populaire au temps du sucre. Au temps du sucre, la porte de sa cabane était toujours ouverte. Les amis et les voisins étaient toujours les bienvenus. Une tasse de « reduit » et un peu de commérage étaient offerts à tous et à chacun - et l'oncle Willie savait raconter une bonne histoire ! Il était une véritable encyclopédie humaine lorsqu'il s'agissait de connaître les noms et les dates de toutes les personnes ayant vécu dans la région, ainsi que tous les événements importants.

Lorsque Herman Copping conduisait le bus scolaire, chaque année, au temps des sucres, il prenait rendez-vous pour s'arrêter à la cabane de l'oncle Willie. Au printemps, les parents savaient que si le bus était en retard un vendredi après-midi, les enfants étaient à la cabane à sucre. Le grand bus jaune s'arrêtait et les enfants descendaient dans la cabane en bavardant et en se poussant les uns les autres avec enthousiasme. Ils se rassemblaient autour de l'évaporateur et attendaient leur tasse de sève chaude. Bien sûr, il y avait toujours beaucoup de questions à poser et à répondre pendant qu'ils attendaient. L'oncle Willie appréciait leur visite et avait toujours une ou deux histoires drôles à leur raconter.

Nombreux étaient ceux qui se faisaient un devoir de s'arrêter chez l'oncle Willie à l'époque des sucres - le printemps était arrivé lorsque l'on voyait de la vapeur s'élever du toit de la sucrerie de l'oncle Willie.

Les enfants aimaient visiter la cabane et regarder le feu brûler et la sève bouillir dans les casseroles. Parfois, ils avaient la chance d'assister à l'enlèvement du sirop. Ce sirop était encore meilleur avec leurs toasts ou leurs crêpes.

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Our Partnerships

La cabane à sucre de l'oncle Willie

Our Partnerships

After Uncle Willie was gone his nephews continued to boil every spring and the tradition of stopping in was carried on. These photos were taken on just such a visit. It was a lovely Sunday afternoon, April 3rd 1977. Things had changed some from Uncle Willie’s day. Now a tractor was used to collect sap and wood was hauled to the cabin wi

These photos were taken on just such a visit. It was a lovely Sunday afternoon, April 3rd 1977. Things had changed some from Uncle Willie’s day.

Now a bull dozer was used to carry the wood to the sugar cabin and a tractor hauled the sap!

Après le départ de l'oncle Willie, ses neveux ont continué à faire bouillir la sève chaque printemps et la tradition de s'y arrêter s'est perpétuée. Ces photos ont été prises lors d'une telle visite. C'était un beau dimanche après-midi, le 3 avril 1977.

Les choses ont changé depuis l'époque de l'oncle Willie. Désormais, un bulldozer était utilisé pour transporter le bois jusqu'à la cabane à sucre et un tracteur transportait la sève !

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Our Irish Heritage Notre héritage irlandais

Newry, County Down

County Antrim, Province of Ulster

The Maritime county of Down, in the Province of Ulster, is bound on the east and south by the Irish Sea (Carlington Bay separating it from m

Louth), on the north by the county of Antrim and Belfast Lough and on the west by the county of Armagh.

When there was an influx of Irish settlers in the township of Rawdon population in Belfast was i

The Maritime county of Down, in the Province of Ulster, is bound on the east and south by the Irish Sea (Carlington Bay separating it from m

Louth), on the north by the county of Antrim and Belfast Lough and on the west by the county of Armagh.

When there was an influx of Irish settlers in the township of Rawdon population in Belfast was in 1821 325,410. In 1831 the population had risen to 352,012. In 1841 towards the end of the arrival of many Irish immigrants in the township of Rawdon the population of Belfast was 361,446.

County Down is divided into the baronies of Ards, Castlereagh,Dufferin, Iveagh, Lower Iveagh, Kinealearty, Lacale, and Morne.

The main towns are Newry, which is also partly in Armagh, Downpatrick, Newton Ards, Hillsborough, Castlewellan, Banbridge, Warrenspoint, Strangford, Bangor, Donaghadee.

The mountains were chiefly confined to the Southern District, where they are magnificent and lesser hills are abundant in all parts. The county is wooded and has many rivers, the ocean being its boundary on three sides and a huge inland sea, Strangford Lough.

Villas, mansions, and ornate cottages surround all sides of the Lough.

People from all the northern and Midland counties of Ireland have made this the place of residence both permanent and seasonal. Consequently neat, clean, and well built cottages have sprung up along the banks of the Lough furnished for let to lodgers.

The village of Warren's point is back by the mountains and faces the Broad Bay. In one direction the house is form a little square, in another they stretch along the edge of the shore.

Is it it was estimated to be esteemed as one of the best and most frequent bathing places in the north of Ireland. In 1827 a small meat church was built there in the town where there is a Presbyterian meeting house and a Roman Catholic chapel. A large windmill stands at the center. There is an extensive rabbit warren whence the place derived its name.

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County Antrim, Province of Ulster

The maritime county of Antrim in the Province of Ulster is bound on the north by the Northern Ocean; on the east and north east by the North Channel; on the south east by Belfast Lough and the river Logan, which separate it from the County of Down; on the south by the County of Down on the south west by Lough Neagh; in the west by the County of Londonderry, and the River Bann, which issues from Lough Beg, dividing the two counties but leaving the Liberties of the Coleraine as the northwest bounty boundary of Antrim.

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1952 Winter Carnaval Le carnaval d'hiver 1952

The Parade

Snow Sculptures

The Rawdon Winter Carnival, sponsored by the Chamber of Commerce, was held on the weekends of February 7th and 8th and 14th and 15th. Chief organizer was Vital Perreault. Queen Street was gaily decorated with coloured lights for the festivities and everyone seemed to get in on the act. Snow sculptures were in evidence all around town with much competitive spirit involved. One local businessman donated several hundred silk badges to be sold to help finance the activities. The prizes and trophies were on display in Charlemagne Neveu’s storefront window.

The Rawdon Consolidated School Band trained and directed by the principal, Percy Ferguson, with majorettes performing as well, provided music for the carnival wherever required-in parades at the rink, et al.

Le Carnaval d'hiver de Rawdon, parrainé par la Chambre de commerce, s'est déroulé les week-ends des 7 et 8 février et des 14 et 15 février. L'organisateur en chef était Vital Perreault. La rue Queen était décorée de lumières colorées pour les festivités et tout le monde semblait participer à l'événement. Des sculptures de neige ont été réalisées un peu partout dans la ville, dans un esprit de compétition. Un homme d'affaires local a fait don de plusieurs centaines de badges en soie qui ont été vendus pour aider à financer les activités. Les prix et les trophées étaient exposés dans la vitrine de Charlemagne Neveu.

Le Rawdon Consolidated School Band, formé et dirigé par le directeur, Percy Ferguson, avec les majorettes, fournit la musique pour le carnaval partout où c'est nécessaire - dans les parades à la patinoire, etc.

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Snow Sculptures

While mild temperaturs drew large crowds it was disastrous for many events.The surface on ice rinks became very soft, the ski trails suffered and the many snow scuptures were melting away. Although judging severely damaged sculptures was a challenge the judges went about around the village examining the many entries. Joe Bourgouin wo

Linda Blagrave’s presentation featured two igloos complete with Inuit, polar bears and cubs, even an Arctic sky, was also a winner.

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Events

Snow Sculptures

Events

The carnival was opened Saturday at 2 p.m.when parade of automobiles left city hall and made their way to Mount Snow for ski competitions. That evening at 7p.m. a torchlight parade left the CNR wending their way up to the College St Anselme (as it was still called) where a program directed by the college was presented. An ice palace built

A presentation directed by the College of Cinderella on ice was enjoyed by all. The children skated to the William Tell Overture, with lighting provided by Pierre Gariepy, a local electrician, played on the scene making it a magical setting.The performers persevered despite very poor ice conditions due to inclement weather conditions and won the admiration of all present.At the end of the program fireworks lit up the sky to the delight of the spectators.

The night ended with dancing on Queen Street in front of city hall the music being furnished by the Perreault brothers on their violins. The Manoir, Rawdon Inn, Manchester and Pine Lodge all held gala evenings on the Saturday nights.

Sunday brought more skiing competitions on Mount Snow and horse racing, snowshoe walking and other activities on Queen Street.

At this time there was a lot of interest in horse racing in Rawdon. There were several locals who owned racehorses.

There was also a hockey game, a semi-final in the Montcalm League. In between periods there were various races on the ice.

In the evening there were sleigh rides for everyone.

Somewhere in the middle of all these activities there was a children's masquerade on ice skates.
On Sunday afternoon, a group of skaters from the Longeuil Skating Club, aged between 5 and 14, won the admiration of the carnival-goers at the college, not only for their skills, but also for their costumes and musical accompaniment.

The second weekend had similar events, but the crowning of the Carnival Queen took place on the ice on Saturday night. The queen and two princesses were dressed in fur-trimmed velvet gowns and crowned with tiaras. The queen was chosen according to the number of votes cast for her. The three contestants were Jacline Préville, Marjory Purcell and Doris Belisle. Marjory Purcell was the winner.
The carnival ended with an amateur night in the Legion Hall, where prizes were awarded and trophies presented.

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Britain 1811 la Grand Bretagne 1811

A Changing World

Un monde en pleine mutation

The invention of the steam engine was altering the workforce. The industrial age was born. Thousands of smokestacks throughout England belched black smoke that settled on nearby roof tops and in peoples’ lungs causing an alarming increase in respiratory ailments as well as other associated health problems.

It was now possible to transpo

It was now possible to transport passengers and goods greater distances at greater speeds. Roads were being improved to allow for faster, easier, transport of the manufactured goods to all corners of the island as well as to the seaports.

The export trade was greatly enhanced. Stage coaches were also much improved and now carried as many as eight passengers on the new McAdam or hardtop roads with greater speed than had been previously possible.

The turn of the century saw the introduction of a steam locomotive which travelled on rails as well as steam boats that plied the rivers without being dependant on fickle winds to carry them along.

The population of London had passed the million mark. People from rural areas were leaving their small towns to seek employment in the “Big City”.

Crowding in towns and cities created a crisis in housing. Lack of water and poor sanitation practices in the now crowded urban areas resulted in contamination and plagues maiming and killing thousands. Beer became the beverage of choice with micro-breweries springing up all over the country.

Although the ratio was swiftly changing, there were still more people employed in cottage industries than in factories. Records show the years between 1782-1821 was the period with the worst conditions for the cottage workers.

Those such as lace and stocking weavers worked from their homes. The materials were usually leased from a hosier who supplied the raw material and bought the finished product back. This led to much abuse by the hosier yet the workers had no recourse.

Mechanization on farms left many in agricultural no means of livelihood, with neither employment nor a roof over their heads.

Many large landowners struggled with how to deal with their tenants who were now obsolete. Emmigration became the answer for many. Providing transportation to the colonies was a solution proffered for these now desperate families.

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Un monde en pleine mutation

L'invention de la machine à vapeur modifie la main-d'œuvre. L'ère industrielle est née. Des milliers de cheminées dans toute l'Angleterre crachent de la fumée noire qui se dépose sur les toits voisins et dans les poumons des gens, provoquant une augmentation alarmante des affections respiratoires ainsi que d'autres problèmes de santé asso

Il est désormais possible de transporter des passagers et des marchandises sur de plus grandes distances et à plus grande vitesse. Les routes sont améliorées pour permettre un transport plus rapide et plus facile des produits manufacturés vers tous les coins de l'île ainsi que vers les ports maritimes.

Le commerce d'exportation s'en trouve grandement amélioré. Les diligences ont également été améliorées et transportent désormais jusqu'à huit passagers sur les nouvelles routes McAdam ou à toit rigide, à une vitesse supérieure à ce qu'il était possible de faire auparavant.

Le tournant du siècle voit l'introduction d'une locomotive à vapeur qui se déplace sur des rails, ainsi que de bateaux à vapeur qui sillonnent les rivières sans être tributaires des vents capricieux pour les porter.

La population de Londres a dépassé le million d'habitants. Les habitants des zones rurales quittent leurs petites villes pour chercher du travail dans la « grande ville ».

L'entassement dans les villes crée une crise du logement. Le manque d'eau et les mauvaises Les pratiques d'assainissement dans les zones urbaines désormais surpeuplées ont entraîné des contaminations et des épidémies qui ont mutilé et tué des milliers de personnes. La bière est devenue la boisson de prédilection et des micro-brasseries ont vu le jour dans tout le pays.

Bien que le rapport évolue rapidement, il y a toujours plus de personnes employées dans les industries artisanales que dans les usines. Les archives montrent que les années 1782-1821 ont été la période où les conditions de travail des artisans ont été les plus mauvaises.

Les tisseurs de dentelles et de bas travaillaient à domicile. Les matériaux étaient généralement loués à un bonnetier qui fournissait la matière première et rachetait le produit fini. Cette situation donnait lieu à de nombreux abus de la part du bonnetier, mais les travailleurs n'avaient aucun recours.

La mécanisation des exploitations agricoles a privé de nombreux agriculteurs de leurs moyens de subsistance, sans emploi ni toit au-dessus de leur tête.

De nombreux grands propriétaires terriens se demandent comment traiter leurs locataires, devenus obsolètes. L'émigration devient la solution pour beaucoup. La solution proposée à ces familles désespérées consiste à leur fournir un moyen de transport vers les colonies.

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Bonaparte

Meanwhile “that dreadful little man” as Napoleon was referred to in England, was waging war throughout Europe.

Napoleon’s rampage disrupted England’s trade with Europe. This had direct and severe consequences on the English economy. Bankruptcies and job losses resulted causing desperate poverty among the tradesmen and working classes. To combat this loss of trade, markets were expanded to the New World and the shipping industry took hold.

To bolster the morale of the English, patriotism was fanned to a frenzy.

Stories were told, poems were written, and ballads sung about the exploits of England’s finest. He might conquer the Continent, but that “little upstart Corsican” was not going to beat the English down!

England, itself, was destitute, many of its people near starvation, but it still held firm against the invader. When Napoleon instituted a blockade, England found the means of supplying its own food. Industry was geared to local consumption. Trade embargoes, bankruptcies, heavy taxes-- nothing would make England bow down to his threats.

Pendant ce temps, « cet affreux petit homme », comme on appelait Napoléon en Angleterre, faisait la guerre dans toute l'Europe.

Le déchaînement de Napoléon a perturbé le commerce de l'Angleterre avec l'Europe. Cela a eu des conséquences directes et graves sur l'économie anglaise. Les faillites et les pertes d'emploi ont entraîné une pauvreté désespérée parmi les commerçants et les classes ouvrières. Pour lutter contre cette perte de commerce, les marchés ont été étendus au Nouveau Monde et l'industrie du transport maritime s'est développée.

Pour soutenir le moral des Anglais, le patriotisme est attisé.

On raconte des histoires, on écrit des poèmes et on chante des ballades sur les exploits des meilleurs Anglais. Il peut bien conquérir le continent, mais ce « petit parvenu corse » ne battra pas les Anglais à plate couture !

L'Angleterre elle-même est démunie, beaucoup de ses habitants sont au bord de la famine, mais elle tient bon face à l'envahisseur. Lorsque Napoléon instaure un blocus, l'Angleterre trouve les moyens de s'approvisionner en nourriture. L'industrie est orientée vers la consommation locale. Embargos commerciaux, faillites, lourdes taxes, rien ne peut faire plier l'Angleterre sous les menaces de Napoléon.

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Nelson

Bonaparte

The cornerstone for the Trafalgar Monument, dedicated to Lord Nelson, on Notre Dame Street in Montreal, was laid in 1809. Nearby was the pillory where criminals were incarcerated. A sign was posted nearby naming the criminal and the offence for which he was charged and found guilty. Prisoners convicted of larceny were tied to a cannon, a

In 1793 when war broke out between England and France it fell to Nelson to blockade the French forces which he did quit successfully.

There were never enough volunteers to man the navy’s ships so “His Majesty’s Press Gang” was sent out to conscript sailors for Nelson’s ships. Men without means were “pressed into service” as well as vagrants and many others unlucky enough to be picked up.

In different battles Nelson first lost an eye, then an arm, but he continued to lead the Royal Navy to victory against France and their ally, Spain. He was promoted to vice-admiral and then made a viscount for his efforts.

His final victory in 1805 cost him his life, but he was buried with full honours and recognized as a national hero. Today his final victory is still celebrated on Trafalgar Day and monuments to him still stand, notably one in downtown Montreal which has recently been refurbished.

The navy, with Nelson (1758-1805) as its leader, captured not only the enemy but the imagination and admiration of the whole nation. Like Bonaparte, he was not a big man but what he lacked in stature he made up for in colour. His naval career started at the young age of 12 years old and by the age of twenty he was captain of his ship. He had already served in the Arctic as well as the East and West Indies.In 1793 when war broke out between England and France it fell to Nelson to blockade the French forces which he did quit successfully. There were never enough volunteers to man the navy’s ships so “His Majesty’s Press Gang” was sent out to conscript sailors for Nelson’s ships. Men without means were “pressed into service” as well as vagrants and many others unlucky enough to be picked up.

The cornerstone of the Trafalgar Monument, dedicated to Lord Nelson, on Notre Dame Street in Montreal, was laid in 1809. Nearby was the pillory, where criminals were imprisoned. Nearby was a plaque naming the criminal and the offence for which he was charged and found guilty. Prisoners convicted of theft were tied to a cannon, also nearby, and given 39 lashes on the bare back.

This was the first monument erected in honour of Lord Nelson.

The navy led by Nelson (1758-1805) captured the imagination and admiration not only of the enemy but of the whole nation. Like Bonaparte, he was not a tall man, but what he lacked in stature he made up for in colour. His naval career began at the tender age of 12 and he was captain of his own ship by the time he was twenty. He had served in the Arctic and in the East and West Indies.

When war broke out between England and France in 1793, it fell to Nelson to blockade the French forces, which he did successfully.

There were never enough volunteers to man the navy's ships, so His Majesty's Press Gang was sent out to conscript sailors for Nelson's ships. Men without means were 'pressed into service', as were vagrants and many others unfortunate enough to be picked up.

La première pierre du monument Trafalgar, dédié à Lord Nelson, sur la rue Notre-Dame à Montréal, a été posée en 1809. À proximité se trouvait le pilori où les criminels étaient incarcérés. Une pancarte était affichée à proximité, indiquant le nom du criminel et le délit pour lequel il avait été accusé et reconnu coupable. Les prisonniers condamnés pour vol étaient attachés à un canon, également situé à proximité, et recevaient 39 coups de fouet sur le dos nu.

Ce fut le premier monument élevé en l'honneur de Lord Nelson.

La marine, avec Nelson (1758-1805) à sa tête, a conquis non seulement l'ennemi, mais aussi l'imagination et l'admiration de toute la nation. Comme Bonaparte, il n'était pas très grand, mais ce qu'il n'avait pas en taille, il le compensait en couleur. Sa carrière navale a commencé dès l'âge de 12 ans et, à 20 ans, il était capitaine de son navire. Il avait déjà servi dans l'Arctique ainsi que dans les Indes orientales et occidentales.

En 1793, lorsque la guerre a éclaté entre l'Angleterre et la France, Nelson a été chargé de bloquer les forces françaises, ce qu'il a fait avec beaucoup de succès.

Comme il n'y avait jamais assez de volontaires pour armer les navires de la marine, le « His Majesty's Press Gang » (groupe de presse de Sa Majesté) a été envoyé pour recruter des marins pour les navires de Nelson. Les hommes sans ressources sont « mis sous pression », de même que les vagabonds et bien d'autres personnes qui ont la malchance d'être ramassées.

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The Call for Emmigration

The Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris signed in 1763 gave England sovereignty over the St. Lawrence River. England, France, Spain, and Portugal were involved in this pact.

The treaty divided up the colonies in North America between these main European powers. France seated to England all possessions in North America except Louisiana and the islands of Sai

The Treaty of Paris signed in 1763 gave England sovereignty over the St. Lawrence River. England, France, Spain, and Portugal were involved in this pact.

The treaty divided up the colonies in North America between these main European powers. France seated to England all possessions in North America except Louisiana and the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon at the mouth of the Saint Laurent River. In the Caribbean islands of Grenadine and Granada went to England and Martinique and Guadalupe to France. In 1808 France sold Louisiana to the United States for $3 million.

To confirm her presence, and guard against an invasion from the newly formed United States England was encouraging settlement in the New World.

In the British Isles mechanization manual labour in the farming community was becoming redundant. Many labourers in the agricultural field were now living in poverty, bordering on famine. With the hope of finding employment in the city many left the country in favour of a more urban area.

Mechanization also affected cottage workers such as those employed in the weaving industry. In this occupation alone the use of power left thousands without a source of income.

To combat this unemployment and poverty, the British House of Commons produced a three volume report studying the problem of so many on relief. The report stated that there was a “superabundant” number of agricultural paupers. The workers whose services are no longer in demand consume more than they produce and consequently add nothing to the national production but tend to diminish the national wealth.The cheapest action beneficial to both the people and the government was deemed to be “voluntary” emigration - get these paupers onto a ship headed for the colonies where they would find work and have the means to buy British goods with their income.

To this end the British government encouraged the promotion of emigration by supposed experienced travellers who printed pamphlets and held town hall meetings to extol the benefits to be found in the newly held territory in the Canadas.

Although a few of these promoters cognizant of life in the new colony, most had never ventured into a new settlement to witness the actual clearing of land, or establishment of a township.

From their passage on the St. Lawrence River from on board ship hopeful immigrants witnessed farms, settled under the French regime, on fertile soil, settled by colonists who had been on their farms for several generations.

They described comfortable homes with all the essentials of life close at hand and were

not averse to colouring the favourable conditions and ignoring the difficulties to be faced by settlers wishing to make a success of the move. Promises such as a house could easily be raised in a day with the help of experienced neighbours and fields that yielded 40 bushels to an acre were part of the usual spiel.

1807 George Heriot, Deputy Postmaster General of British North America published a book

of his observations in the colonies during his twenty years of service. “Travels in the Canadas” not only described the country but gave details on the climate and productions as well as the

people and their habitations. It, as well as many other such publications strongly supported by the government, was meant to stimulate voluntary emigration to the Canadas.

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Le traité de Paris

The Treaty of Paris

Le traité de Paris signé en 1763 donne à l'Angleterre la souveraineté sur le fleuve Saint-Laurent. L'Angleterre, la France, l'Espagne et le Portugal sont impliqués dans ce pacte.

Le traité répartit les colonies d'Amérique du Nord entre ces principales puissances européennes. La France cède à l'Angleterre toutes ses possessions en Amérique

Le traité de Paris signé en 1763 donne à l'Angleterre la souveraineté sur le fleuve Saint-Laurent. L'Angleterre, la France, l'Espagne et le Portugal sont impliqués dans ce pacte.

Le traité répartit les colonies d'Amérique du Nord entre ces principales puissances européennes. La France cède à l'Angleterre toutes ses possessions en Amérique du Nord, à l'exception de la Louisiane et des îles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, à l'embouchure du fleuve Saint-Laurent. Dans les Caraïbes, les îles de Grenadine et de Grenade reviennent à l'Angleterre, tandis que la Martinique et Guadalupe reviennent à la France. En 1808, la France vend la Louisiane aux États-Unis pour 3 millions de dollars.

Pour confirmer sa présence et se prémunir contre une invasion des nouveaux États-Unis, l'Angleterre encourage la colonisation du Nouveau Monde.

Dans les îles britanniques, la mécanisation du travail manuel dans la communauté agricole devenait superflue. De nombreux ouvriers agricoles vivent désormais dans la pauvreté, au bord de la famine. Dans l'espoir de trouver un emploi en ville, nombreux sont ceux qui quittent la campagne pour s'installer dans une zone plus urbaine.

La mécanisation a également touché les travailleurs artisanaux, tels que ceux employés dans l'industrie du tissage. Dans ce seul secteur, l'utilisation de la force motrice a privé des milliers de personnes de toute source de revenu.

Pour lutter contre le chômage et la pauvreté, la Chambre des communes britannique a rédigé un rapport en trois volumes pour étudier le problème de l'abondance des secours. Le rapport fait état d'un nombre « surabondant » d'indigents agricoles. L'action la moins coûteuse, bénéfique à la fois pour le peuple et pour le gouvernement, est l'émigration « volontaire », c'est-à-dire l'embarquement de ces indigents sur un bateau à destination des colonies où ils trouveront du travail et auront les moyens d'acheter des produits britanniques avec leurs revenus.

À cette fin, le gouvernement britannique encourage la promotion de l'émigration par de prétendus voyageurs expérimentés qui impriment des brochures et organisent des réunions publiques pour vanter les avantages des territoires nouvellement détenus au Canada.

Bien que quelques-uns de ces promoteurs connaissent la vie dans la nouvelle colonie, la plupart d'entre eux ne se sont jamais aventurés dans une nouvelle colonie pour assister au défrichement des terres ou à l'établissement d'un canton.

Lors de leur passage sur le fleuve Saint-Laurent, les immigrants pleins d'espoir ont vu des fermes établies sous le régime français, sur un sol fertile, par des colons installés sur leurs fermes depuis plusieurs générations.

Ils décrivent des maisons confortables avec tous les éléments essentiels à la vie à portée de main et n'hésitent pas à colorer les conditions favorables et à ignorer les difficultés auxquelles devront faire face les colons désireux de réussir leur installation. Des promesses telles que la construction d'une maison en un jour avec l'aide de voisins expérimentés et des champs produisant 40 boisseaux à l'acre faisaient partie du baratin habituel.

1807 George Heriot, vice-ministre des Postes de l'Amérique du Nord britannique, publie un livre

de ses observations dans les colonies au cours de ses vingt années de service. « Travels in the Canadas » ne se contente pas de décrire le pays, mais donne des détails sur le climat et les productions, ainsi que sur les gens et leurs habitations.

les gens et leurs habitations. Cet ouvrage, comme beaucoup d'autres publications de ce type fortement soutenues par le gouvernement, était destiné à stimuler l'émigration volontaire vers les Canadas.

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The Canadas of 1811

The British colony was divided into two distinct sectors by the Constitutional Act of 1791. Upper and Lower Canada, divided by the Ottawa River. Each sector had a Governor, an Executive Council, Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. These bodies were appointed by the King, Governor and Executive Council's term being indefinite;

Settlement in the Canada's was strongly encouraged by the British government. One reason being British settlers annually used $40 worth of British imports to the colonies, 2/3 more than the average British subject required if he remained at home. This fact was very interesting to a country on the brink of bankruptcy due to a prolonged war with France as well as the consequences of the ongoing Industrial Revolution.

Another strong influence was the fear of invasion by the newly formed United States. There was a well grounded fear that these newly independent colonies had an eye on their neighbour to the north. It was essential for Britain to have a ready population if an invasion arrived.

The main towns of Lower Canada were Quebec City with a population of 15,000, Montreal with approximately 11,000, Trois Rivières with a little over 1000, population and William Henry (Sorel) with less than 2000 people.

In the Rawdon Township several land grants were given to military personnel (or their widows) stationed at William Henry possibly in the hope these people would be interested in settling on their granted land. None of these grantees settled in Rawdon. The land was sold to others wishing to settle in the area.

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La colonie britannique a été divisée en deux secteurs distincts par l'Acte constitutionnel de 1791. Le Haut et le Bas-Canada, divisés par la rivière des Outaouais. Chaque secteur est doté d'un gouverneur, d'un conseil exécutif, d'un conseil législatif et d'une chambre d'assemblée. Ces organes sont nommés par le roi, le mandat du gouverneur et du Conseil exécutif étant indéfini ; le Conseil législatif est nommé à vie. Ce dernier conseil servait de conseiller juridique à la législature.

La colonisation du Canada est fortement encouragée par le gouvernement britannique. L'une des raisons en est que les colons britanniques utilisent chaque année 40 dollars d'importations britanniques dans les colonies, soit 2/3 de plus que ce dont le sujet britannique moyen a besoin s'il reste chez lui. Ce fait était très intéressant pour un pays au bord de la faillite en raison d'une guerre prolongée avec la France et des conséquences de la révolution industrielle en cours.

La crainte d'une invasion par les États-Unis nouvellement créés a également exercé une forte influence. La crainte que ces nouvelles colonies indépendantes aient un œil sur leur voisin du nord était bien fondée. Il était essentiel pour la Grande-Bretagne de disposer d'une population prête à intervenir en cas d'invasion.

Les principales villes du Bas-Canada sont Québec (15 000 habitants), Montréal (environ 11 000 habitants), Trois-Rivières (un peu plus de 1 000 habitants) et William Henry (Sorel) (moins de 2 000 habitants).

Dans le canton de Rawdon, plusieurs concessions de terres ont été accordées à des militaires (ou à leurs veuves) stationnés à William Henry, peut-être dans l'espoir que ces personnes seraient intéressées à s'établir sur les terres qui leur avaient été concédées. Aucun de ces concessionnaires ne s'est installé à Rawdon. Les terres ont été vendues à d'autres personnes souhaitant s'installer dans la région.

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Sailing Towards The Future

A Typical 1811 Sailboat

La Traversée de l'Atlantique

For days, weeks, sometimes a month or more, depending on the season and weather conditions, this small vessel would be home to hundreds of passengers, a mere spot in the great Atlantic with only sky and water to be seen. The Ancient Mariner describes the experience:

Alone, alone, all, all, alone.

Alone on a wide, wide, sea.

The ship’s lo

Alone, alone, all, all, alone.

Alone on a wide, wide, sea.

The ship’s log was required to enter the name, age, and origin of steerage passengers. This was done faithfully as the government or sponsor of the immigrants only paid the captain for the safe arrival of live passengers.

Passengers were divided into two groups, cabin and steerage. Passengers from steerage were forbidden access to the afterdeck. This rule was strictly enforced by the captain. Penalties such as the stoppage of a day's water ration served as an effective deterrent to remain below. Only those required to use the fire on deck for cooking were allowed up.

Cabin passengers with space of their own, were less crowded and segregated from those below deck. They ate with the captain whose wife prepared the meals thus were not required to bring all their own food. The menu consisted of hard biscuit, ham, corned beef, cabbage, potatoes, tea. Many ships kept a few chickens to supply eggs, a pig for pork, and on larger sailing vessels a cow to furnish milk during the crossing. Towards the end of the crossing fresh meat might added to the menu in the cabin.

Cabin passengers still faced a what was possibly a three month voyage on board a crowded ship with little privacy and totally lacking in facilities as we know them today. They would have had to bring, as well as all the requirements to start a new life, food, medication, everything needed on the crossing as well as that for settling in their new home.

Cabin passengers are difficult to trace as there was no advantage to the ship owner in keeping a record of these passengers.

In 1803 the British Government passed a law to improve conditions for steerage passenger but it was never enforced. The law required a ship to carry a meal allowance for below deck passengers to supplement their own provisions which were often meagre or nonexistent. The provisions cited consisted of 1 pound of meal or bread per adult, half a pound for those under 14, and a third pound for children under seven. These provisions would be issued daily to prevent being consumed too quickly as well as to stave off theft.

The crew was usually a little better provided for with a pound or two of meat and biscuit for their daily allowance. Unless they were on a temperance ship, of which there were a few, they also had a ration of grog or rum. Lime juice to prevent scurvy was also issued to the crew.

On the foredeck was a large wooden case lined with bricks contained a fireplace for the below deck passengers to prepare food. All day small groups would be around the fire cooking whatever stores they were lucky enough to have. Meagre stews (some might have a little bacon or herring to put into a stewpot, particularly in the early part of the voyage) or cakes or griddles were baked on the fire. The cakes, about 2 inches thick, were often encrusted with a thick, black, smoke flavoured, crust still quite raw in the middle. In the evening the fire was doused and all were sent below for the night.

Meals could also be supplemented with fresh fish caught as they sailed. If the fish were in abundance they were cured and kept for later on when there were none to be caught.

Ships were obliged to carry enough water for the duration of the trip. It was strictly measured. Even those afflicted with a fever were not allowed extra allowance.

Often, due to leakage, spillage, or not enough being brought on board, water was scarce. What water was available soon became foul and putrid if not stored in clean barrels.

Below deck, crowded into a small place, the atmosphere was never pleasant - even less so as boredom, seasickness, dysentery, and fevers took hold. The captain’s wife, who often sailed with her husband ministered to the afflicted but had very little to offer - little was available in medication and considering the limitations, nursing care was minimal.

Those who succumbed would be wrapped in sail and with fellow passengers gathered around, a few prayers were said before the body was dropped overboard. Burial at sea. The loss was required to be noted in the log book.

Disputes were bound to appear with so many people crowded into in such a small space. Sickness and restricted supplies resulted in much grumbling among the still healthy passengers. Often times they organized themselves into a group with a representative elected to represent them. This leader was also expected to see that the below deck was kept as clean as possible, the no smoking rule was respected, and quarrels were settled before they escalated into a major brouhaha or physical confrontation.

He was the one who approached the captain with any complaints or requests as a voyage progressed. The captain was not usually sympathetic with the complaints of the passengers. When their leader returned without positive results he became the brunt of the dissatisfaction of his fellow passengers.

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La Traversée de l'Atlantique

Pendant des jours, des semaines, parfois un mois ou plus, en fonction de la saison et des conditions météorologiques, ce petit navire devenait le domicile de centaines de passagers. Petit point dans le grand océan Atlantique, il offrait comme seul paysage le ciel et l’eau. Le Vieux Marin décrit l’expérience :

Seul, seul, je resterai deb

Seul, seul, je resterai debout,

Tout seul, tout seul, sur la vaste, la vaste mer.

Parmi ces passagers, plusieurs voyaient la mer, ou même un voilier, pour la première fois. Ils allaient naviguer vers l’océan Atlantique, ignorant qu’ils passeraient au moins quatre semaines à bord du navire. Ils voyageaient aux frais du gouvernement ou d’un propriétaire terrien. Ils ne connaissaient pas grand-chose de leur destination, si ce n’est qu’ils s’en allaient à Québec et qu’il y avait là beaucoup de travail pour eux.

Les passagers du navire étaient divisés en deux groupes : des cabines pour les passagers qui payaient leur traversée et l’entrepont pour ceux qui étaient parrainés. Sous le pont, entassés dans de petites couchettes, l’atmosphère n’était jamais agréable — encore moins lorsque l’ennui, le mal de mer, la dysenterie et les fièvres s’installaient.

Il était interdit aux passagers de l’entrepont d’accéder au pont supérieur. Cette règle était strictement appliquée par le capitaine. Des sanctions telles que la suspension de la ration d’eau quotidienne servaient à dissuader efficacement les intrus.

Bien que les cabines de l’époque étaient moins luxueuses par rapport aux normes d’aujourd’hui, les passagers qui logeaient dans une de ces cabines étaient moins à l’étroit et profitaient d’une traversée beaucoup plus facile que ceux logés en dessous.

Le journal de bord du navire devait mentionner seulement le nom, l’âge et l’origine des passagers de l’entrepont. Cette exigence était fidèlement respectée, car le gouvernement ou le commanditaire des immigrants payait le capitaine pour que ces passagers arrivent à bon port.

Ceux qui succombaient durant la traversée étaient enveloppés dans une voile et, en présence des autres passagers rassemblés, après quelques prières, le corps était jeté par-dessus bord.

La sépulture en mer.

Bien que cette exigence ne fût pas toujours respectée, le décès devait être noté dans le journal de bord.

La loi exigeait aussi qu’un navire transporte une allocation de repas pour les passagers du pont inférieur. Les provisions citées consistaient en une livre de farine ou de pain par adulte, une demi-livre pour les moins de 14 ans et un tiers de livre pour les enfants de moins de sept ans. Cette nourriture était distribuée quotidiennement pour éviter les vols parmi les passagers ou qu’elle soit toute consommée en une seule fois. Souvent, cette allocation n’était pas respectée et les voyageurs futés, s’ils en avaient les moyens, emportaient quelques provisions avec eux.

Les membres de l’équipage étaient généralement un peu mieux nourris : ils recevaient quotidiennement une livre ou deux de viande et des biscuits. À moins d’être sur un navire de tempérance (prohibant les boissons alcoolisées) et il y en avait quelques-uns, ils recevaient également une ration de grog ou de rhum. Du jus de citron vert leur était également distribué pour prévenir le scorbut.

Il y avait sur le pont avant de grandes caisses en bois doublées de briques avec une grille métallique à l’avant. Il s’agissait de foyers alimentés au charbon que les passagers du pont inférieur utilisaient pour préparer la nourriture. De petits groupes se rassemblaient autour de ces feux pour cuisiner ce qu’ils avaient la chance d’avoir et ce, de tôt le matin jusqu’au soir. Le soir venu, alors que le feu s’éteignait, tout le monde devait redescendre pour la nuit. On cuisait sur le feu de maigres ragoûts (certains pouvaient avoir un peu de lard ou de hareng à mettre dans un faitout, en particulier au début du voyage) ou des gâteaux ou des grilles étaient cuits sur le feu. Les gâteaux, d'une épaisseur d'environ 2 pouces, étaient souvent recouverts d'une croûte épaisse, noire, aromatisée à la fumée et encore assez crue au milieu. Le soir, le feu est éteint et tout le monde descend pour la nuit.

Les repas pouvaient également être complétés par du poisson frais pêché pendant la traversée. Si le poisson était abondant, on le salait et on le gardait pour plus tard, lorsqu'il n'y aurait plus de poisson à pêcher.

Les navires étaient tenus de transporter suffisamment d'eau pour la durée du voyage. La quantité d'eau était strictement mesurée. Même les personnes souffrant de fièvre n'avaient pas droit à un supplément.

Souvent, en raison de fuites, de déversements ou d'une quantité insuffisante d'eau à bord, l'eau était rare. L'eau disponible devient vite fétide et putride si elle n'est pas stockée dans des tonneaux propres.

Sous le pont, entassés dans un espace restreint, l'atmosphère n'est jamais agréable, et encore moins lorsque l'ennui, le mal de mer, la dysenterie et les fièvres s'installent. La femme du capitaine, qui navigue souvent avec son mari, s'occupe des malades, mais n'a pas grand-chose à leur offrir : les médicaments sont rares et, compte tenu des limitations, les soins infirmiers sont minimes.

Ceux qui succombaient étaient enveloppés dans la voile et, avec les autres passagers rassemblés autour, quelques prières étaient prononcées avant que le corps ne soit jeté par-dessus bord. Enterrement en mer. La perte doit être notée dans le journal de bord.

Des conflits ne manquent pas de surgir avec tant de personnes entassées dans un si petit espace. La maladie et le manque de vivres provoquent de nombreux mécontentements parmi les passagers encore en bonne santé. Souvent, ils s'organisent en groupe et élisent un représentant pour les représenter. Ce chef devait également veiller à ce que le pont inférieur soit aussi propre que possible, à ce que la règle de l'interdiction de fumer soit respectée et à ce que les querelles soient réglées avant qu'elles ne dégénèrent en brouhaha majeur ou en affrontement physique.

Traduction : Michel Léonard

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Land Ho!

Fishing Boats off the Islands of St. Pierre & Miquelon Bateaux de pêche au large de la côte Saint-Pierre et Miqueland

For seven weeks or more these small sailboats battled wind and waves as they made their way across the Atlantic carrying their passengers ever closer to their new home.

Finally, the weary passengers caught the first sight of land since leaving England so far behind.

From here on to Quebec City progress was rather slower than it might have

For seven weeks or more these small sailboats battled wind and waves as they made their way across the Atlantic carrying their passengers ever closer to their new home.

Finally, the weary passengers caught the first sight of land since leaving England so far behind.

From here on to Quebec City progress was rather slower than it might have been on the open water of the sea.

Ships were subject to the whims of the wind. The wind was fickle and could abate suddenly calming the waters all the way up the river and halting all movement of all the vessels.

These calms might be for a couple days or up to 3 weeks before the wind returned to push them on their way again.

Understandably passengers imprisoned on a vessel that was going nowhere while water and food dwindled to almost nothing caused much frustration for both passengers and crew.

As the ship sailed around the southern tip of Newfoundland and into the relatively narrow passage of Cabot Strait that separates Newfoundland and the northern tip of Cape Breton the sight of land and fishing boats must have been very welcome.

At this time both islands were still rather sparsely settled. Passengers stood on deck hungrily gazing at the rocky shores of Newfoundland and noticing how this rugged coastline contrasted so greatly with the gentler, greener images of Cape Breton.

The sailboats made through way through the Cabot Strait and entered the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. Once again there was no land in sight. The joy felt at the first sight of land after being at sea for several weeks was soon lost as here land was no longer visible.

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The Approach to the St. Lawrence River Approche du fleuve Saint-Laurent

Fishing Boats off the Islands of St. Pierre & Miquelon Bateaux de pêche au large de la côte Saint-Pierre et Miqueland

Pendant sept semaines ou plus, ces petits voiliers ont affronté le vent et les vagues en traversant l'Atlantique, transportant leurs passagers toujours plus près de leur nouvelle patrie.

Enfin, les passagers fatigués aperçoivent la terre pour la première fois depuis qu'ils ont quitté l'Angleterre.

À partir de là et jusqu'à la ville de Q

Pendant sept semaines ou plus, ces petits voiliers ont affronté le vent et les vagues en traversant l'Atlantique, transportant leurs passagers toujours plus près de leur nouvelle patrie.

Enfin, les passagers fatigués aperçoivent la terre pour la première fois depuis qu'ils ont quitté l'Angleterre.

À partir de là et jusqu'à la ville de Québec, la progression est plus lente qu'elle ne l'aurait été sur les eaux libres de la mer.

Les navires sont soumis aux caprices du vent. Le vent est capricieux et peut s'arrêter soudainement, calmant les eaux tout le long du fleuve et stoppant tout mouvement de tous les navires.

Ces accalmies pouvaient durer quelques jours ou jusqu'à trois semaines avant que le vent ne revienne pour les remettre en route.

Il est compréhensible que les passagers emprisonnés sur un navire qui n'allait nulle part, alors que l'eau et la nourriture se réduisaient comme peau de chagrin, aient été très frustrés, tant par les passagers que par l'équipage.

Alors que le navire contourne la pointe sud de Terre-Neuve et s'engage dans le passage relativement étroit du détroit de Cabot qui sépare Terre-Neuve de la pointe nord du Cap-Breton, la vue de la terre et des bateaux de pêche a dû être très appréciée.

À cette époque, les deux îles étaient encore peu peuplées. Les passagers se tenaient sur le pont, regardant avec appétit les côtes rocheuses de Terre-Neuve et remarquant à quel point ce littoral accidenté contrastait avec les images plus douces et plus vertes du Cap-Breton.

Les voiliers traversent le détroit de Cabot et entrent dans le golfe du Saint-Laurent. Une fois de plus, aucune terre n'est en vue. La joie ressentie à la première vue de la terre après plusieurs semaines passées en mer s'est vite estompée car la terre n'était plus visible.

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Let Us Follow the Ship to Quebec City Suivons le navire ju

Now that we know the conditions, the reasons and what was left behind, we will follow a ship across the Gulf of St. Lawrence and up the St. Lawrence River to Quebec City.

With water and food supplies running low, spirits were low when they realised they would be on board for two weeks or more before disembarking in Quebec City.

Maintenant que nous connaissons les conditions, les raisons et ce qui a été laissé derrière nous, nous allons suivre un navire qui traverse le golfe du Saint-Laurent et remonte le fleuve jusqu'à la ville de Québec.

Les réserves d'eau et de nourriture s'amenuisant, le moral des marins est au plus bas lorsqu'ils réalisent qu'ils resteront à bord pendant deux semaines, voire plus, avant de débarquer à Québec.

The Gulf of the St. Lawrence Le Golfe du St. Laurent

Fishing Boats off the Islands of St. Pierre & Miquelon Bateaux de pêche au large de la côte Saint-Pierre et Miqueland

The following descriptions of the passage to and up the St. Lawrence River are based on material found in George Heriot's "Travels in Canada" (1807), Don Snow's "Victory or Death", and various journals and publications written by those who made the passage in the early years of the 19th century.

Having finally crossed the Atlantic and on

Having finally crossed the Atlantic and once again in sight of land the weary passengers had much difficulty imagining the distance they would still had to cover. Many became greatly frustrated at the many delays encountered on the way to the destination at Quebec City.

For several weeks, the ships had battled wind and waves as they sailed across the Atlantic, bringing their passengers ever closer to their new home.

As the ship neared the entrance to the Gulf of the Saint Lawrence passengers caught their first glimpse of land since leaving their homes.

The sail to Quebec was not without incident, many delays, still to be encountered, were due to weather conditions including wind, both total lack and exceptionally strong.

Another difficulty was the cold Atlantic waters meeting the warmer waters of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland created a dense fog.

The shift of the winds determined the density of the fog to be contended with. At times the fog was so dense ships would have to weigh anchor and wait. This could be days before the fog lifted and the ships could continue on.

Weighing anchor was not just pitching an anchor overboard. In all it could take six hours to weigh or raise the anchor depending on the wind and the length of the cable required.

The procedure was a long, laborious task, taking four or more hours and involving several sailors manning the ropes and pulleys to ease the anchor down.

Raising the anchor was the same procedure in reverse.

If the wind was favourable the captain moved the ship to a vertical point over the anchor. Once the anchor was cleared of the water it had to be handled very carefully so as not to damage as it was lashed to the forecastle. The huge cable was stored on the deck below the water line.

The cable was made of soft manila rope. When it dried made an excellent mattress and senior officers used to this for their accommodation.

A distraction in this area was the sight of ships, some heading home, some going upriver as they were. On approach the ship’s flag was raised to identify its self.

Often times captains would recognize an acquaintance’s flag and the ship would heave to near enough to shout greetings and exchange news.

To people who had been at sea for one or two long months contact with other human beings was a great relief.

The ship continued sailing towards the entrance to the relatively narrow 42 mile passage of Cabot Strait separating Newfoundland and the northern tip of Cape Breton.

At this time Newfoundland and Cape Breton were both sparsely populated. Passengers stood on the deck gazing hungrily at the sight of land.

The rocky shores of Newfoundland’s rugged coastline contrasted so greatly with the gentler, greener, images of Cape Breton on the opposite shore.

After making its way slowly through the Cabot Strait the ship proceeded towards Cape Ray and Cape North where the Isle of St. Paul, actually a huge rock rising from the water, divided to form three conical peaks. The water on either side of the island was deep enough for ships to pass through but passage was difficult resulting in many shipwrecks in this area.

Remnants of these disasters, including human bones, was visible to those on board passing ships. Not a very inspiring site.

Continuing towards the mouth of the St Lawrence the monotony of life on board would occasionally be broken by the glimpse of a distant shore or even small ‘islands’ that were in reality huge rocks jutting out of the water. During the summer months the rocks were home to thousands of large white sea birds called gannets. Here they built their nests every spring and spent the summer fishing in the Gulf waters coming back to nest on the rocks at nightfall.

Smaller birds would entertain the passengers following ships crying for bits of food to be thrown away. Incoming ships would be poor pickings compared to those heading out but the birds were ever hopeful as they flew and squawked behind the ship.

Immigrants could not visualize the size of the waterway they were entering. Rivers in the British Isles were merely creeks in comparison to the St. Lawrence River.

In places the gulf reached 42 miles across and it was a 180 mile sail on the river to their destination of Quebec. In ideal conditions the sail up the sail up the river took 8 days, the return trip was 5 days. However conditions were not always ideal.

Many challenges faced the captain if he wished to deliver his passengers safely.

Unavoidable delays due to storms or calms were frequent.

Wild, stormy, weather, with little or no warning swamped ships, sometimes blowing the ships back towards the gulf.

Where the river was particularly treacherous special pilots had to be taken aboard to guide the ships through these channels. If a pilot was not available the ship lay at anchor awaiting his arrival. (In rough weather pilots on ships sailing back to Europe were sometimes obliged to stay on board until the ship docked in Europe where they boarded the first ship going back to Quebec.)

The Gulf of St. Lawrence, the largest estuary in the world, 2000 miles (3,218 km) to its source in Minnesota, is the greatest tidal water river in the world.

The Gulf of St. Lawrence, 90 miles (approx. 145 km.) across at the entrance, was almost like being on the ocean again, nothing but water in view.

Despite this seemingly open space, guiding ships safely through the waves was a precise and frequently challenging operation.

The expanse of water to gain entrance to the St. Lawrence River was beyond the scope of the imagination for many passengers, and there was still much more to come.

The seamen on these Atlantic crossings, many having made several trips, were well versed on the sights along the river. Known to be very enthusiastic tour guides pointing out the landmarks as their vessel proceeded towards Quebec City, they provided welcome diversion on this seemingly slow, endless trip.

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The Approach to the St. Lawrence River Approche du fleuve Saint-Laurent

Fishing Boats off the Islands of St. Pierre & Miquelon Bateaux de pêche au large de la côte Saint-Pierre et Miqueland

Les descriptions suivantes du passage vers le fleuve Saint-Laurent et de sa remontée sont basées sur des documents trouvés dans « Travels in Canada » (1807) de George Heriot, « Victory or Death » de Don Snow, et divers journaux et publications écrits par ceux qui ont fait le passage dans les premières années du 19e siècle.

Après avoir trav

Après avoir traversé l'Atlantique et retrouvé la terre ferme, les passagers fatigués ont du mal à imaginer la distance qu'il leur reste à parcourir. Nombre d'entre eux sont très frustrés par les nombreux retards rencontrés sur le chemin de leur destination, la ville de Québec.

Pendant plusieurs semaines, les navires ont affronté le vent et les vagues lors de leur traversée de l'Atlantique, rapprochant toujours plus leurs passagers de leur nouvelle patrie.

Alors que le navire s'approche de l'entrée du golfe du Saint-Laurent, les passagers aperçoivent la terre pour la première fois depuis qu'ils ont quitté leur maison.

La navigation vers Québec ne s'est pas déroulée sans incident, de nombreux retards, encore à déplorer, étant dus aux conditions météorologiques, notamment au vent, à la fois inexistant exceptionnellement fort.

Les eaux froides de l'Atlantique rencontrant les eaux plus chaudes des Grands Bancs de Terre-Neuve ont créé un brouillard dense.

La rotation des vents déterminait la densité du brouillard à affronter. Parfois, le brouillard était si dense que les navires devaient lever l'ancre et attendre. Il pouvait s'écouler des jours avant que le brouillard ne se lève et que les navires puissent poursuivre leur route.

Peser l'ancre, ce n'est pas seulement jeter une ancre à la mer. En tout, il fallait parfois six heures pour lever ou remonter l'ancre, en fonction du vent et de la longueur de câble nécessaire.

La procédure était longue et laborieuse, elle prenait quatre heures ou plus et impliquait plusieurs marins qui s'occupaient des cordes et des poulies pour faire descendre l'ancre.

La remontée de l'ancre se fait de la même manière, en sens inverse.

Si le vent est favorable, le capitaine déplace le navire jusqu'à ce qu'il soit à la verticale de l'ancre. Une fois l'ancre sortie de l'eau, il fallait la manipuler avec beaucoup de précautions pour ne pas l'abîmer lorsqu'elle était arrimée au gaillard d'avant. L'énorme câble était stocké sur le pont, sous la ligne de flottaison.

Le câble était fait d'une corde de manille souple. Une fois sec, il constituait un excellent matelas et les officiers supérieurs s'en servaient pour se loger.

Dans cette région, la vue des navires, certains rentrant chez eux, d'autres remontant le fleuve, constitue une distraction. À l'approche, le drapeau du navire est hissé pour s'identifier.

Souvent, les capitaines reconnaissaient le pavillon d'une connaissance et le navire s'approchait suffisamment pour crier des salutations et échanger des nouvelles.

Pour les personnes qui ont passé un ou deux longs mois en mer, le contact avec d'autres êtres humains est un grand soulagement.

Le navire continue à naviguer vers l'entrée du détroit relativement étroit de 42 le détroit de Cabot sépare Terre-Neuve de la pointe nord du Cap-Breton.

À cette époque, Terre-Neuve et le Cap-Breton étaient tous deux peu peuplés. Les passagers se tenaient sur le pont, regardant avec appétit la vue de la terre. Les rivages rocheux de la côte accidentée de Terre-Neuve contrastent fortement avec les images plus douces et plus vertes du Cap-Breton, sur la rive opposée.

Après avoir traversé lentement le détroit de Cabot, le navire s'est dirigé vers le cap Ray et le cap Nord, où l'île de Saint-Paul, un énorme rocher émergeant de l'eau, s'est divisée pour former trois pics coniques. L'eau de chaque côté de l'île était suffisamment profonde pour permettre aux navires de passer, mais le passage était difficile, ce qui a entraîné de nombreux naufrages dans cette zone.

Les vestiges de ces catastrophes, y compris des ossements humains, étaient visibles par les passagers des navires de passage. Ce n'est pas un site très inspirant.

En continuant vers l'embouchure du Saint-Laurent, la monotonie de la vie à bord était parfois interrompue par l'aperçu d'un rivage lointain ou même de petites « îles » qui étaient en réalité d'énormes rochers émergeant de l'eau. Pendant les mois d'été, ces rochers abritent des milliers de grands oiseaux de mer blancs appelés fous de Bassan. Ils y construisent leur nid chaque printemps et passent l'été à pêcher dans les eaux du golfe, revenant nicher sur les rochers à la tombée de la nuit.

Des oiseaux plus petits divertissaient les passagers des navires qui criaient pour obtenir des morceaux de nourriture à jeter. Les navires qui arrivaient étaient plus pauvres que ceux qui partaient, mais les oiseaux gardaient l'espoir en volant et en criant derrière le navire.

Les immigrants ne pouvaient pas se rendre compte de la taille de la voie d'eau dans laquelle ils s'engageaient. Les rivières des îles britanniques n'étaient que des ruisseaux comparés au fleuve Saint-Laurent.

Par endroits, le golfe atteint 42 miles de large et il faut 180 miles de navigation sur le fleuve pour atteindre leur destination, le Québec. Dans des conditions idéales, la remontée du fleuve prenait 8 jours, le retour 5 jours. Mais les conditions n'étaient pas toujours idéales.

Le capitaine doit relever de nombreux défis s'il veut amener ses passagers à bon port.

Les retards inévitables dus aux tempêtes ou aux calmes étaient fréquents.

Le temps sauvage, orageux, avec peu ou pas d'avertissement, submergeait les navires, les repoussant parfois vers le golfe.

Lorsque le fleuve était particulièrement dangereux, il fallait embarquer des pilotes spéciaux pour guider les navires dans ces chenaux. Si aucun pilote n'était disponible, le navire restait à l'ancre en attendant son arrivée. (Par gros temps, les pilotes des navires qui repartent vers l'Europe sont parfois obligés de rester à bord jusqu'à ce que le navire accoste en Europe, où ils montent à bord du premier navire qui rentre au Québec).

Le golfe du Saint-Laurent, d'une largeur de 90 milles (environ 145 km) à l'entrée, donnait l'impression d'être à nouveau sur l'océan, avec l'eau pour seul horizon.

Malgré cet espace apparemment ouvert, guider le navire en toute sécurité à travers les vagues était une opération précise et souvent difficile.

L'étendue d'eau pour entrer dans le fleuve Saint-Laurent dépasse l'imagination de nombreux passagers, et ce n'est pas fini.

Les marins qui effectuaient ces traversées de l'Atlantique, dont beaucoup avaient déjà fait plusieurs voyages, connaissaient bien les sites touristiques le long du fleuve.

Connus pour être des guides touristiques très enthousiastes indiquant les points de repère au fur et à mesure que leur navire avançait vers la ville de Québec, ils constituaient une distraction bienvenue au cours de ce voyage apparemment lent et interminable.

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Sailing Up the St. Lawrence River Naviguer sur le fleuve St.

Miramachi, on the shore of what became New Brunswick on a clear day was visible from the deck of a passing boat. Par temps clair, Miramachi, sur la côte de ce qui est devenu le Nouveau-Brunswick, était visible depuis le pont d'un bateau qui passait.Par temps clair, Miramachi, sur la côte de ce qui est devenu le Nouveau-Brunswick, était visible depuis le pont d'un bateau qui passait. Par temps clair, Miramachi, sur la côte de ce qui est devenu le Nouveau-Brunswick, était visible depuis le pont d'un bateau qui passait.

Miramachi, on the shore of what became New Brunswick on a clear day was visible from the deck of a passing boat.

The Mi’kmaq nation had long been in the area previous to the arrival of the French.

Although this might seem a very primitive settlement, when the earliest settlers were coming to the Rawdon Township, the Miramichi had alrea

Miramachi, on the shore of what became New Brunswick on a clear day was visible from the deck of a passing boat.

The Mi’kmaq nation had long been in the area previous to the arrival of the French.

Although this might seem a very primitive settlement, when the earliest settlers were coming to the Rawdon Township, the Miramichi had already been settled by Europeans for 163 years.

From 1765 to 1800 many Scottish immigrants settled in Miramichi. Irish immigrants began arriving in 1815.

Ship building and the export of lumber dated back to 1765. This industry suffered greatly when steel hulled ships replaced wooden hulls, as well, over cutting of the white pine greatly depleted the forests. The great bush fire of 1825 was another blow to this production of lumber in the area.

The Magdalen Islands on the port side were much more visible to passing ships. Although there was no farming done on this isolated cluster of small islands the dwellings of a few fishermen and their families were visible from the decks of the many vessels sailing through the Gulf of the St. Lawrence.

Occasionally the passengers would be able to catch a glimpse of a distant shore or even small ‘islands’ that were in reality huge rocks jutting out of the water. In early July these rocks would be home to literally thousands of large white sea birds called gannets. They built their nests here every spring and spent the summer fishing in the Gulf waters coming back to nest on the rocks at nightfall.

La nation Mi'kmaq était présente depuis longtemps dans la région avant l'arrivée des Français. Bien que cet établissement puisse sembler très primitif, lorsque les premiers colons sont arrivés dans le canton de Rawdon, la Miramichi était déjà habitée par des Européens depuis 163 ans.De 1765 à 1800, de nombreux immigrants écossais se sont installés à Miramichi. Les immigrants irlandais ont commencé à arriver en 1815. La construction navale et l'exportation de bois remontent à 1765. Cette industrie a beaucoup souffert lorsque les navires à coque d'acier ont remplacé les coques en bois. De plus, la coupe abusive du pin blanc a considérablement épuisé les forêts. Le grand feu de brousse de 1825 a également porté un coup à la production de bois dans la région.

Les îles de la Madeleine, à bâbord, étaient beaucoup plus visibles pour les navires de passage. Bien qu'il n'y ait pas d'agriculture sur ce groupe isolé de petites îles, les habitations de quelques pêcheurs et de leurs familles étaient visibles depuis les ponts des nombreux navires qui naviguaient dans le golfe du Saint-Laurent.

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Gaspé Bay Hervey Smyth was an aide du camp to James Wolfe. This sketch was drawn from on board ship during Wolfe’s approach to Quebec City in view of taking the French Jewel in their American Crown for the British. Hervey Smyth était un aide de camp de James Wolfe. Cette esquisse a également été réalisée à bord d'un navire lors de l'approche de Wolfe vers la ville de Québec en vue de prendre le joyau français de leur couronne américaine pour les Britanniques.

Miramachi, on the shore of what became New Brunswick on a clear day was visible from the deck of a passing boat. Par temps clair, Miramachi, sur la côte de ce qui est devenu le Nouveau-Brunswick, était visible depuis le pont d'un bateau qui passait.Par temps clair, Miramachi, sur la côte de ce qui est devenu le Nouveau-Brunswick, était visible depuis le pont d'un bateau qui passait. Par temps clair, Miramachi, sur la côte de ce qui est devenu le Nouveau-Brunswick, était visible depuis le pont d'un bateau qui passait.

Gaspé Bay was known as the cradle of New France. It was here in 1534 that Jacques Cartier, having put ashore due to stormy weather, raised a cross and claimed the land for France. Apparently, there were no negotiations with the inhabitants.

Two hundred years later this area was still only sparsely settled. In his 1807 publication, George

Two hundred years later this area was still only sparsely settled. In his 1807 publication, George Heriot reported 300 families, mostly Roman Catholics, settled in this area.

Most were fishermen living along the banks of the river.

In 1758 General Wolfe had raided the area in an attempt to demoralize the people into surrendering to the British.

In this he was not successful, however the Treaty of Paris in 1763 saw it under British rule. In the interest of laying claim to their new land, the British were eager to see it settled by their own citizens. British officers and soldiers were given grants of land and

encouraged to establish in the Gaspé. The newcomers soon had an important fishing industry, mostly cod but salmon and herring, as well.

Ten years later, in 1773, there was a thriving ship building industry as well as an important lumber export business in the Gaspé. The year 1784 saw the arrival of several United Empire Loyalists to the area. In 1804 the first post office was opened in Gaspé.

Although Canadians have a tendency not to boast of the greatest, the largest, etc., the Gulf and the St.Lawrence River both fall into this category. Saint Lawrence River drains 400,000 mi.², 350,000 ft.³ of water per second into the North Atlantic Ocean. This significant discharge renders navigation on the river very difficult. Shallows, reefs, islands, complicate navigation in the St. Lawrence. Easterly winds, although helpful, usually bring in rain and fog to further complicate the navigation. Great gales rush in buffeting ships and then leave just as suddenly leaving behind the becalmed sailboats. As a ship sailed up the St. Lawrence the effect of the tide became more pronounced.

Ships entering the had St. Lawrence River, still had another 400 miles to go before arriving at Quebec City. The trip up the the river took as much as two weeks. The current often negated the wind power and sudden storms and violent wind squalls tended to cause frequent delays. At times sail boats were completely stilled, at other times the wind was so ferocious they had to weigh anchor to avoid being thrust upon the rocks or islands that dotted the river.

In certain places, due to narrow passages, hidden rocks, fickle shoals, or devilish currents, captains of vessels going upstream were required to take on special pilots to guide them through the water.

La baie de Gaspé est connue comme le berceau de la Nouvelle-France. C'est là qu'en 1534, Jacques Cartier, ayant échoué à cause d'une tempête, a brandi une croix et revendiqué la terre pour la France. Apparemment, il n'y a pas eu de négociations avec les habitants.

Deux cents ans plus tard, cette région n'était encore que faiblement peuplée. Dans sa publication de 1807, George Heriot fait état de 300 familles, pour la plupart catholiques, installées dans la région.

La plupart étaient des pêcheurs vivant sur les rives de la rivière.

En 1758, le général Wolfe avait effectué un raid dans la région pour tenter de démoraliser la population et l'amener à se rendre aux Britanniques.

Il n'y parvint pas, mais le traité de Paris de 1763 plaça la région sous domination britannique. Afin de revendiquer leur nouveau territoire, les Britanniques étaient impatients de le voir s'installe les officiers et les soldats britanniques reçoivent des concessions de terre et sont encouragés à s'établir en Gaspésie.

Les nouveaux arrivants ont rapidement développé une importante industrie de la pêche, principalement de la morue, mais aussi du saumon et du hareng.

Dix ans plus tard, en 1773, la construction navale est florissante et l'exportation du bois est importante en Gaspésie. L'année 1784 voit l'arrivée de plusieurs loyalistes de l'Empire-Uni dans la région. En 1804, le premier bureau de poste a été ouvert à Gaspé.

Bien que les Canadiens aient tendance à ne pas se vanter du plus grand, du plus gros, etc., le golfe et le fleuve Saint-Laurent font partie de cette catégorie. Le fleuve Saint-Laurent draine 400 000 mi², 350 000 pi³ d'eau par seconde dans l'océan Atlantique Nord. Ce débit important rend la navigation sur le fleuve très difficile. Les hauts-fonds, les récifs et les îles compliquent la navigation sur le Saint-Laurent. Les vents d'est, bien qu'utiles, apportent généralement de la pluie et du brouillard qui compliquent encore la navigation. Les grands coups de vent s'abattent sur les navires, puis repartent tout aussi soudainement, laissant derrière eux les voiliers encalminés. Au fur et à mesure qu'un navire remonte le Saint-Laurent, l'effet de la marée devient plus prononcé.

Dix ans plus tard, en 1773, l'industrie de la construction navale est florissante et l'exportation du bois est importante en Gaspésie. L'année 1784 voit l'arrivée de plusieurs Loyalistes de l'Empire-Uni dans la région. En 1804, le premier bureau de poste a été ouvert à Gaspé.

Parfois, les voiliers sont complètement immobilisés, parfois le vent est si féroce qu'ils doivent lever l'ancre pour éviter d'être projetés sur les rochers ou les îles qui parsèment le fleuve.

À certains endroits, en raison de passages étroits, de rochers cachés, de hauts-fonds capricieux ou de courants diaboliques, les capitaines des bateaux remontant le fleuve devaient prendre des pilotes spéciaux pour les guider sur l'eau.

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Sailing Up the St. Lawrence River Naviguer sur le fleuve St.

Sketch of Percé Rock Hervey Smyth This is the earliest known sketch of Percé Roch. The sailing ship is the Vangard under the command of Robert Swanton. The Vanguard mounted 64 guns and was instrumental in raising the siege of Quebec in 1760. Esquisse du rocher Percé Hervey Smyth Il s'agit de la première esquisse connue du rocher Percé. Le voilier est le Vangard commandé par Robert Swanton. Le Vanguard était armé de 64 canons et a joué un rôle déterminant dans la levée du siège de Québec en 1760.

Ships sailed near enough to this already well known phenomenon for passengers to catch a good view of Percé Rock which jutted out into the Gulf.

Its majestic appearance with the intriguing holes was the subject of many articles on travel as well as seen in paintings and drawings. In 1607 Samuel de Champlain, the first known European to

Ships sailed near enough to this already well known phenomenon for passengers to catch a good view of Percé Rock which jutted out into the Gulf.

Its majestic appearance with the intriguing holes was the subject of many articles on travel as well as seen in paintings and drawings. In 1607 Samuel de Champlain, the first known European to see this rock, had described it in his log a hundred years earlier.

As the river gradually narrowed the passengers could enjoy the scenery on the shore from both sides of the ship. And what a view it was! The thick green forests of the mountains coming down to meet the river as it flowed past, sparkling and dancing on sunny days, or dark and threatening in foul weather.

Under ideal weather conditions, sailing up the river from Bic Island to Quebec City took 8 days, the return took 5 days. However, the St. Lawrence River was very unpredictable and it was not unknown to take as much as 2 weeks due to protracted calms, strong winds and fierce storms.

Where difficult channels had to be navigated special pilots were taken on board. During the busy season there could be a wait for a pilot. Another reason for a delay, in rough weather pilots could not disembark and sailed on to Europe taking the first boat back to their posts.

When land was finally cited the desolate coast of Newfoundland, although not particularly promising, was still very welcome sight to passengers who had spent a month or more crossing the vast, empty Atlantic Ocean..

Progress in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, being 90 miles across at the entrance it was almost like being on the ocean again and progress was very tedious care had to be taken to avoid risking the safety of the passengers and the ship.

Ile de Bic, the first relatively large piece of land known as the gateway to the Canadas, was 3 miles (4.8 km) off shore.

Porpoises often swam alongside a vessel entertaining their visitors.

Green Island is larger than the back and is the most populated one at this point. Just below this island a pilot is essential to navigate the river.

Les navires naviguent suffisamment près de ce phénomène déjà bien connu pour que les passagers puissent apercevoir le rocher Percé qui s'avance dans le golfe.

Son aspect majestueux et ses trous intrigants ont fait l'objet de nombreux articles de voyage et ont été représentés sur des peintures et des dessins. En 1607, Samuel de Champlain, le premier Européen connu à avoir vu ce rocher, l'avait décrit dans son journal de bord cent ans plus tôt.

Le fleuve se rétrécissant progressivement, les passagers pouvaient admirer le paysage de la rive des deux côtés du bateau. Et quelle vue ! Les épaisses forêts vertes des montagnes descendent à la rencontre du fleuve qui passe, scintillant et dansant les jours ensoleillés, ou sombre et menaçant par mauvais temps.

Dans des conditions météorologiques idéales, la remontée du fleuve depuis l'île du Bic jusqu'à la ville de Québec prenait 8 jours, et le retour 5 jours. Cependant, le fleuve Saint-Laurent est très imprévisible et il n'est pas rare que la traversée dure jusqu'à deux semaines en raison de calmes prolongés, de vents violents et de tempêtes violentes.

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Gaspé Bay Hervey Smyth was an aide du camp to James Wolfe. This sketch was drawn from on board ship during Wolfe’s approach to Quebec City in view of taking the French Jewel in their American Crown for the British. Hervey Smyth était un aide de camp de James Wolfe. Cette esquisse a également été réalisée à bord d'un navire lors de l'approche de Wolfe vers la ville de Québec en vue de prendre le joyau français de leur couronne américaine pour les Britanniques.

Sketch of Percé Rock Hervey Smyth This is the earliest known sketch of Percé Roch. The sailing ship is the Vangard under the command of Robert Swanton. The Vanguard mounted 64 guns and was instrumental in raising the siege of Quebec in 1760. Esquisse du rocher Percé Hervey Smyth Il s'agit de la première esquisse connue du rocher Percé. Le voilier est le Vangard commandé par Robert Swanton. Le Vanguard était armé de 64 canons et a joué un rôle déterminant dans la levée du siège de Québec en 1760.

Two hundred years later this area was still only sparsely settled. In his 1807 publication, George

Two hundred years later this area was still only sparsely settled. In his 1807 publication, George Heriot reported 300 families, mostly Roman Catholics, settled in this area.

Most were fishermen living along the banks of the river.

In 1758 General Wolfe had raided the area in an attempt to demoralize the people into surrendering to the British.

encouraged to establish in the Gaspé. The newcomers soon had an important fishing industry, mostly cod but salmon and herring, as well.

La plupart étaient des pêcheurs vivant sur les rives de la rivière.

En 1758, le général Wolfe avait effectué un raid dans la région pour tenter de démoraliser la population et l'amener à se rendre aux Britanniques.

Il n'y parvint pas, mais le traité de Paris de 1763 plaça la région sous domination britannique. Soucieux de revendiquer leurs nouvelles terres, les Britanniques étaient impatients de les voir colonisées par leurs propres citoyens. Les officiers et les soldats britanniques reçoivent des concessions de terre et sont encouragés à s'établir en Gaspésie.

encouragés à s'établir en Gaspésie. Les nouveaux arrivants ont rapidement développé une importante industrie de la pêche, principalement de la morue, mais aussi du saumon et du hareng.

Les navires qui entrent dans le fleuve Saint-Laurent ont encore 400 milles à parcourir avant d'arriver à Québec. La remontée du fleuve peut durer jusqu'à deux semaines. Le courant annule souvent la force du vent et les tempêtes soudaines et les violents grains de vent entraînent de fréquents retards. Parfois, les voiliers sont complètement immobilisés, parfois le vent est si féroce qu'ils doivent lever l'ancre pour éviter d'être projetés sur les rochers ou les îles qui parsèment le fleuve.

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The End of a Long Voyage La fin d'un long voyage

Chutes Montmerecy Falls

The Montmorency Falls as seen from the deck of passing vessels were a spectacular site.

Les chutes de Montmorency, vues depuis le pont des bateaux de passage, constituent un site spectaculaire.

Ile of Orléans.

Chutes Montmerecy Falls

Farm on Ile d’Orleans Thomas Davies

Ferme de l'île d'Orléans Thomas Davies

Ile d’Orleans presented a picturesque view rising from steep banks in some places, a more gradual ascent in others. It was divided into five parishes, St. Pierre and Ste. Famille on the north, St. Francis, St. John, and St. Laurent on the south. About 2000 people

Farm on Ile d’Orleans Thomas Davies

Ferme de l'île d'Orléans Thomas Davies

Typical of the French settlements, the farms were on narrow lots with houses sitting relatively to the other facing along the waterfront. While a few stone houses were built, the majority of homes on the island were constructed of wood.

Ile d’Orléans was one of the earliest and most densely populated settlements in New France. It was also the most

fertile area providing food for Quebec City and the surrounding area.

While Ile d’Orleans was known as the breadbasket of the Quebec City area, surrounded by water, it also profited from the river’s bounty. Eel traps are seen in the sketch set out along the shore.

Most of the farmers on the island were descendants of the original owners. Today this is still true.

L'île d'Orléans présente une vue pittoresque, s'élevant sur des rives escarpées à certains endroits, et plus graduellement à d'autres. Elle était divisée en cinq paroisses : Saint-Pierre et Sainte-Famille au nord, Saint-François, Saint-Jean et Saint-Laurent au sud. Environ 2000 personnes vivaient sur l'île.

Typiques des établissements français, les fermes étaient situées sur des lots étroits, les maisons étant relativement proches les unes des autres et faisant face au bord de l'eau. Bien que quelques maisons en pierre aient été construites, la majorité des maisons de l'île étaient construites en bois.

L'île d'Orléans est l'un des premiers établissements de la Nouvelle-France et l'un des plus densément peuplés. C'était aussi la plus

L'île d'Orléans est une région fertile qui fournit de la nourriture à la ville de Québec et à la région environnante.

Entourée d'eau, l'île d'Orléans était connue comme le grenier à blé de la région de Québec, mais elle profitait aussi des richesses du fleuve. Le croquis montre des pièges à anguilles disposés le long de la rive.

La plupart des agriculteurs de l'île étaient des descendants des premiers propriétaires. C'est encore le cas aujourd'hui.

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Quebec City La Ville de Québec

Quebec City

La Ville de Québec

Quebec had been under British rule 44 years but architecturally little had changed from the French regime. Despite requiring major restoration due to General Wolfe’s bombardment, the buildings had been rebuilt as they were, although in many instances their function had changed to reflect the new regime. Repairs, begun immediately upon

Quebec City was the major port in the Canadas. Lower Town, at the base of the promontory, wrested from the cliffs on one side by mining, and expanded on the water side by the construction of wharves that reached out over the river. The river at this point was approximately a mile wide and 35 fathoms deep. The tide rose about 3 fathoms, but in the spring it could go as high as four.

The Lower Town was the centre of commerce and industry. Ship building had started some 20 years earlier and was now a major industry. Ships of all sizes and descriptions were built here. Wood for the construction was abundant locally. Anchors, cordage, and sails were imported from Europe.

Although the colony was becoming self-sufficient, there were still many articles that had to be imported, especially in textiles, lace, fine china, and other luxury items.

Large store houses were built in the port area by wealthy merchants who imported goods from the old country.

In 1811 Quebec City offered good promise of employment for new arrivals. The British military was preoccupied with reinforcing existing fortifications and building additional lines of defence in view of a growing threat of invasion from the newly formed United States. Men were needed for all kinds of work, from craftsmen to labourers, the last being the most urgently required. Masons and stone-cutters, builders, lime burners, carpenters, sawyers and axemen, teamsters, blacksmiths, pulley makers and edge-tool makers, wheelwrights and harness makers, diggers and packers could all find employment with the military or, preferably private contractors who paid better wages.

Working conditions, although unacceptable today, were comparable to those in the British Isles and France. A typical summer’s day would begin at five in the morning. At 8 o'clock there was a half hour break for breakfast after which they return to work until noon. After lunch they returned to work until seven in the evening. If the job was urgent, after a half hour break for supper they worked until dark.

Winter months required a rescheduling of work hours. They would start at eight in the morning and have only an hour for lunch, after which they worked until sunset.

On very rainy, stormy summer days, or very cold, blustery, winter days when it was impossible to work the wages were docked.

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La Ville de Québec

Québec était sous domination britannique depuis 44 ans, mais l'architecture n'avait guère changé depuis le régime français. Bien que les bombardements du général Wolfe aient nécessité une restauration majeure, les bâtiments ont été reconstruits à l'identique, même si, dans de nombreux cas, leur fonction a été modifiée pour refléter le nou

La ville de Québec est le principal port du Canada. La Basse-Ville, située au pied du promontoire, a été arrachée aux falaises d'un côté par l'exploitation minière et agrandie du côté de l'eau par la construction de quais qui s'étendent sur le fleuve. À cet endroit, le fleuve est large d'environ un mille et profond de 35 brasses. La marée montait à environ 3 brasses, mais au printemps, elle pouvait monter jusqu'à 4 brasses.

La ville basse était le centre du commerce et de l'industrie. La construction navale avait commencé une vingtaine d'années plus tôt et était devenue une industrie majeure. Des navires de toutes tailles et de toutes descriptions y étaient construits. Le bois nécessaire à la construction était abondant dans la région. Les ancres, les cordages et les voiles étaient importés d'Europe.

Bien que la colonie devienne autosuffisante, de nombreux articles doivent encore être importés, en particulier des textiles, de la dentelle, de la porcelaine fine et d'autres articles de luxe. De grands entrepôts sont construits dans la zone portuaire par de riches marchands qui importent des marchandises de l'ancien pays pour les distribuer au Canada.

En 1811, la ville de Québec offre de bonnes perspectives d'emploi aux nouveaux arrivants. L'armée britannique est préoccupée par le renforcement des fortifications existantes et la construction de nouvelles lignes de défense face à la menace croissante d'une invasion des nouveaux États-Unis. Des hommes sont recherchés pour toutes sortes de travaux, des artisans aux ouvriers, ces derniers étant les plus urgents. Les maçons et les tailleurs de pierre, les constructeurs, les brûleurs de chaux, les charpentiers, les scieurs et les hacheurs, les conducteurs d'attelage, les forgerons, les fabricants de poulies et d'outils tranchants, les charrons et les fabricants de harnais, les terrassiers et les emballeurs pouvaient tous trouver un emploi auprès de l'armée ou, de préférence, auprès d'entrepreneurs privés qui payaient de meilleurs salaires.

Les conditions de travail, bien qu'inacceptables aujourd'hui, étaient comparables à celles des îles britanniques et de la France. Une journée d'été typique commence à cinq heures du matin. À 8 heures, il y avait une pause d'une demi-heure pour le petit-déjeuner, après quoi les travailleurs reprenaient le travail jusqu'à midi. Après le déjeuner, ils reprennent le travail jusqu'à sept heures du soir. Si le travail était urgent, après une pause d'une demi-heure pour le dîner, ils travaillaient jusqu'à la tombée de la nuit.

Les mois d'hiver nécessitaient un réaménagement des horaires de travail. Ils commençaient à huit heures du matin et n'avaient qu'une heure pour déjeuner, après quoi ils travaillaient jusqu'au coucher du soleil.

Les jours d'été très pluvieux et orageux, ou les jours d'hiver très froids et venteux où il était impossible de travailler, les salaires étaient réduits.

Traduit avec DeepL.com (version gratuite)

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Quebec City La Ville de Québec

Adapting to a New Country

Although the colony was becoming self-sufficient, there were still many articles that had to be imported, especially in textiles, lace, fine china, and other luxury items.

Large store houses were built in the port area by wealthy merchants who imported goods from the old country.

Winter months required a rescheduling of work hours. They would start at eight in the morning and have only an hour for lunch, after which they worked until sunset.

On very rainy, stormy summer days, or very cold, blustery, winter days when it was impossible to work the wages were docke

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La Ville de Québec

Adapting to a New Country

Les jours d'été très pluvieux et orageux, ou les jours d'hiver très froids et venteux où il était impossible de travailler, les salaires étaient réduits.

Traduit avec DeepL.com (version gratuite)

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